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Sapiens: A Brief History of Humankind.Sapiens: A Brief History of Humankind.
Human-Kind. Isn’t that lovely. We have moved away from the patriarchal term mankind – ‘man’ who has not always been ‘kind’, necessarily – toward equality between the sexes and acknowledging gender fluidity. Noah touches on this. If you’re interested in the evolution of humanity and how we are capable of co-operating as a global community, give this book a go. You may experience information overload – but when condensing 2.4 million years into less than 500 pages, Harari goes alright. I’m someone who didn’t pay attention to history at school so I found this book enlightening, empowering and also disheartening at times. Harari writes about the breakthroughs of the Cognitive, Agricultural and Scientific Revolutions. The power of human imagination, math and language has been instrumental in the development of humankind into an apex predator, and the destruction of everything else.
How do psychologists conceptualize defence mechanisms today in a post-Freudian society?How do psychologists conceptualize defence mechanisms today in a post-Freudian society?
Multiple theorists and researchers since Freud have independently converged on the same concept of psychological defences because of the potential utility of the concept.
Alfred Adler, known for emphasising the importance of overcoming feelings of inferiority and gaining a sense of belonging in order to achieve success and happiness, developed a similar idea which he called psychological “safeguarding strategies.”
Karen Horney, who believed that environment and social upbringing, rather than intrinsic factors, largely lead to neurosis, described “protective strategies” used by children of abusive or neglectful parents.
Leon Festinger developed the well-known concept of “cognitive dissonance,” proposing that inconsistency among beliefs or behaviours causes an uncomfortable psychological tension leading people to change one of the inconsistent elements to reduce the dissonance (or to add consonant elements to restore consonance).
Carl Rogers, who was one of the founders of humanistic psychology, known especially for his person-centred psychotherapy, discussed the process of defence as “denial and perceptual distortion”.
Albert Bandura, known for ground-breaking research on learning via observation and social modelling, and the development of social learning theory, conceptualized defences as “self-exoneration mechanisms.”
The influential psychiatrist George Vaillant organized defences on a scale of immature to mature, defining them as “unconscious homeostatic mechanisms that reduce the disorganizing effects of sudden stress.”
Current discussions of coping mechanisms and emotion regulation embody the idea of defences as well. Is a defence mechanism merely a learned internal process manifested in our behaviour to protect us – or our ego – from pain? Is a defence mechanism a merely a coping mechanism to resolve internal stress?
Whatever you believe the answers to be, we can cultivate, learn, and practice adaptive, context-specific and generalised coping strategies that will aid self-development that can improve our health, relationships, self-esteem, workplace performance, and stress management skills.
Fact. Truth. Belief. They are related but distinct. Here’s a clear explanation showing how they differ and interact:Fact. Truth. Belief. They are related but distinct. Here’s a clear explanation showing how they differ and interact:
1. Fact
Definition:
A fact is something that is objectively real and can be proven to be true. It exists independently of what anyone thinks or believes.
Example:
- It is a fact that Australia is in the Southern Hemisphere.
Key Points:
- Facts don’t change based on opinion.
- They can be verified with evidence (e.g. scientific data, observation, reliable records).
- Facts are the foundation upon which truth claims and beliefs can be tested.
2. Truth
Definition:
Truth is a quality of a statement or belief that accurately reflects reality or fact.
Example:
- “Australia is in the Southern Hemisphere” is a true statement because it corresponds with the fact.
Key Points:
- Truth depends on alignment with facts.
- Truth is often expressed in language or claims (“That’s true”, “That’s not true”).
- Something can be true even if no one believes it (e.g. the Earth orbited the Sun even when most people thought otherwise).
3. Belief
Definition:
A belief is something a person thinks or accepts as true, whether or not it actually is.
Example:
- Someone might believe that kangaroos can be kept as pets in all Australian states — but that belief isn’t necessarily true or factual.
Key Points:
- Beliefs are subjective — they vary between individuals and cultures.
- A belief can be true or false, depending on whether it aligns with facts.
- People often act based on their beliefs, regardless of whether they are accurate.
How They Interact
- A belief can be true or false:
→ If your belief aligns with fact, it’s true.
→ If not, it’s false — even if sincerely held. - Truth depends on fact:
→ A statement is true if it correctly describes a fact. - Facts stand alone:
→ They are not changed by belief or opinion.